THE “CONTENTS” OF WINE

86           Water

12           Alcohol (ethyl alcohol)

1             Glycerol

0,4          Organic acids, of which:

                       0,20%    Tartaric acid

                       0,15%    Lactic acid

                       0,05%    Succinic acid (plus traces of malic acid citric acid)

0,2          Carbohydrates (unfermentable sugar)

0,2          Minerals, of which:

                          0,075%   Potassium

                          0,05%     Phosphate

                          0,02%     Calcium

                          0,02%     Magnesium

                          0,02%     Sulfate

                          0,01%     Chloride

                          0,005%    Silicic acid

                          Traces    Aluminum, boron, copper, iron, molybdenum, rubidium,

                                        sodium, zinc

0,1          Tannin and color pigments

0,045      Volatile acids (mostly acetic acid)

0,025      Nitrogenous matter, of which:

                          0.01%     Amino acids (arginine, glutamic acid, proline, serine,

                                        threonine, and others)

                          0,015%    Protein and other nitrogenous matter (humin, amide,

                                        ammonia, and others)

0,025       Esters (mostly ethyl acetate, but traces of numerous others)

0,004       Aldehydes (mostly acetaldehyde, some vanillin, and traces of others)

0,001       Higher alcohols (minute quantities of amyl plus traces of isoamyl, butyl,

                                       isobutyl, hexyl, propyl, and methyl may be present)

Traces     Vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid,

                             nicotinic acid, and ascorbic acid)

Aging of Wine

Aging potential

In general, wines with a low pH (such as Pinot Noir and Sangiovese) have a greater capability of aging. With red wines, a high level of flavor compounds, such as phenolics (most notably tannins), will increase the likelihood that a wine will be able to age. Wines with high levels of phenols include Cabernet Sauvignon, Nebbiolo and Syrah. The white wines with the longest aging potential tend to be those with a high amount of extract and acidity. The acidity in white wines, acting as a preservative, has a role similar to that of tannins in red wines. The process of making white wines, which includes little to no skin contact, means that white wines have a significantly lower amount of phenolic compounds, though barrel fermentation and oak aging can impart some phenols. Similarly, the minimal skin contact with rosé wine limits their aging potential.

  After aging at the winery most wood-aged Ports, Sherries, Vins doux naturels, Vins de liqueur, basic level Ice wines and sparkling wines are bottled when the producer feels that they are ready to be consumed. These wines are ready to drink upon release and will not benefit much from aging. Vintage Ports and other bottled-aged Ports & Sherries will benefit from some additional aging, as can vintage Champagne. In 2009, a 184-year-old bottle of Perrier-Jouët was opened and tasted, still drinkable, with notes of "truffles and caramel", according to the experts.

    Little to no aging potential

• -German QBAs-Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete, or quality wine from a specific region
• -Asti and Moscato Spumante
• -Rosé and blush wines like White Zinfandel
• -Branded wines like Yellow Tail, Mouton Cadet, etc.
• -European table wine
• -American jug & box wine
• -Inexpensive varietals (with the possible exception of Cabernet Sauvignon)
• -The majority of Vin de pays
• -All Nouveau wines
• -Vermouth
• -Basic Sherry
• -Tawny Ports

    Good aging potential

• -Botrytized wines (5–25 yrs)
• -Chardonnay (2–6 yrs)
• -Riesling (2–30 yrs)
• -Hungarian Furmint (3–25 yrs)
• -Loire Valley Chenin blanc (4–30 yrs)
• -Hunter Valley Semillon (6–15 yrs)
• -Cabernet Sauvignon (4–20 yrs)
• -Merlot (2–10 yrs)
• -Nebbiolo (4–20 yrs)
• -Pinot noir (2–8 yrs)
• -Sangiovese (2–8 yrs)
• -Syrah (4–16 yrs)
• -Zinfandel (2–6 yrs)
• -Classified Bordeaux (8–25 yrs)
• -Grand Cru Burgundy (8–25 yrs)
• -Aglianico from Taurasi (4–15 yrs)
• -Baga from Bairrada (4–8 yrs)
• -Hungarian Kadarka (3–7 yrs)
• -Bulgarian Melnik (3–7 yrs)
• -Croatian Plavac Mali (4–8 yrs)
• -Georgian Saperavi (3–10 yrs)
• -Madiran Tannat (4–12 yrs)
• -Spanish Tempranillo (2–8 yrs)
• -Greek Xynomavro (4–10 yrs)
• -Vintage Ports (20–50yrs)

   The ratio of sugars, acids and phenolics to water is a key determination of how well a wine can age. The less water in the grapes prior to harvest, the more likely the resulting wine will have some aging potential. Grape variety, climate, vintage and viticultural practice come into play here. Grape varieties with thicker skins, from a dry growing season where little irrigation was used and yields were kept low will have less water and a higher ratio of sugar, acids and phenolics. The process of making Eisweins, where water is removed from the grape during pressing as frozen ice crystals, has a similar effect of decreasing the amount of water and increasing aging potential.

In winemaking, the duration of maceration or skin contact will influence how much phenolic compounds are leached from skins into the wine. Pigmented tannins, anthocyanins, colloids, tannin-polysaccharides and tannin-proteins not only influence a wine's resulting color but also act as preservatives. During fermentation adjustment to a wine's acid levels can be made with wines with lower pH having more aging potential. Exposure to oak either during fermentation or after (during barrel aging) will introduce more phenolic compounds to the wines. Prior to bottling, excessive fining or filtering of the wine could strip the wine of some phenolic solids and may lessen a wine's ability to age.

   As a wine starts to mature, its bouquet will become more developed and multi-layered. While a taster may be able to pick out a few fruit notes in a young wine, a more complex wine will have several distinct fruit, floral, earthy, mineral and oak derived notes. The lingering finish of a wine will lengthen. Eventually the wine will reach a point of maturity, when it is said to be at its "peak". This is the point when the wine has the maximum amount of complexity, most pleasing mouthfeel and softening of tannins and has not yet started to decay. When this point will occur is not yet predictable and can vary from bottle to bottle. If a wine is aged for too long, it will start to descend into decrepitude where the fruit tastes hollow and weak while the wine's acidity becomes dominant.

  The natural esterification that takes place in wines and other alcoholic beverages during the aging process is an example of acid-catalysed esterification. Over time, the acidity of the acetic acid and tannins in an aging wine will catalytically protonate other organic acids (including acetic acid itself), encouraging ethanol to react as a nucleophile. As a result, ethyl acetate – the ester of ethanol and acetic acid—is the most abundant ester in wines. Other combinations of organic alcohols (such as phenol-containing compounds) and organic acids lead to a variety of different esters in wines, contributing to their different flavours, smells and tastes. Of course, when compared to sulfuric acid conditions, the acid conditions in a wine are mild, so yield is low (often in tenths or hundredths of a percentage point by volume) and take years for ester to accumulate.

Wine Cellar and Storage of Wine

Wine Cellar

A wine cellar is a storage room for wine in bottles or barrels, or more rarely in carboys, amphorae or plastic containers. In an active wine cellar, important factors such as temperature and humidity are maintained by a climate control system. In contrast, passive wine cellars are not climate-controlled, and are usually built underground to reduce temperature swings. An aboveground wine cellar is often called a wine room, while a small wine cellar (less than 500 bottles) is sometimes termed a wine closet. The household department responsible for the storage, care and service of wine in a great mediaeval house was termed the buttery.

Three factors that have the most pronounced effect on wine in storage: light, humidity and temperature.

Light

Strong, direct sunlight or incandescent light can adversely react with phenolic compounds in wine and create potential wine faults. Delicate, light-bodied white wines run the greatest risk from light exposure and are often packaged in darkly tinted wine bottles that offer some protection from the light. Wines packaged in clear, light green and blue colored bottles are the most vulnerable to light and may need extra precautions for storage. For example, the Champagne house of Louis Roederer uses cellophane wrap to protect its premium cuvee Cristal from light, the wine being packaged in a clear bottle. In the cellar, wines are stored in corrugated boxes or wooden crates to protect the wines from direct light.

Humidity

Some degree of humidity is required in order to keep wines with cork enclosures from drying out. Even when wine bottles are stored on their sides, one side of the cork is still exposed to air. If the cork begins to dry out, it can allow oxygen to enter the bottle, filling the ullage space and possibly causing the wine to spoil or oxidize. Excessive humidity can also pose the risk of damaging wine labels, which may hinder identification or hurt potential resale value. 75% humidity is often cited as ideal but there is very little significant research to definitively establish an optimal range.

Temperature

Madeira is exposed to high temperatures during its winemaking process and is thereby able to sustain exposure to higher temperatures more easily than other wines.

Wine is very susceptible to changes in temperature, with temperature control being an important consideration in wine storage. If the wine is exposed to too high a temperature (25 °C) for long periods of time, it may become spoilt or "cooked" and develop off flavors that taste raisiny or stewed. The exact length of time that a wine is at risk of exposure to high temperatures will vary depending on the wine, with some wines (such as Madeira which is exposed to high temperatures during its winemaking) being able to sustain exposure to high temperatures more easily than other, more delicate wines (such as Riesling). If the wine is exposed to temperatures that are too cold, the wine can freeze and expand, causing the cork to be pushed out; this will allow more oxygen to be exposed to the wine. Dramatic temperature swings can also cause adverse chemical reactions in the wine that may lead to a variety of wine faults.

In general, a wine has a greater potential to develop complexity and a more aromatic bouquet if it is allowed to age slowly in a relatively cool environment. The lower the temperature, the more slowly a wine develops. On average, the rate of chemical reactions in wine doubles with each 8 °C increase in temperature. Wine can be stored at temperatures as high as 21 °C without long-term negative effect.

Vibration

Although anecdotal information regarding the contributions of vibration in wine storage states that it contributes to the accelerated aging of wine with adverse effects, this remains a research area with relatively little data. In a particular study, vibrations of different frequencies have been shown to have their own distinct effect on the chemistry of the wine. The study concludes, "Vibration could be used to accelerate the aging of wine, but in most cases, this may lead to negative effects in wine quality. Therefore, to store red wines with limited changes in physico-chemical properties, vibrations should be minimized''.

Bottle History

History of Port Wine Bottle 

For the first several thousand years, wine was stored in wooden barrels, leather bags, stoneware or pottery. All large, but varying in size, they were often sealed with a wood or leather plugs, or even a layer of olive oil, but only if the container didn’t have to be moved. For many reasons, these containers often leaked or contaminated the wine and it turned into vinegar or simply went bad. Besides, since the major means of transportation were wagons or ships, the containers were often spilled or broken. And, these containers were too large or bulky to be brought to the table so the wine was decanted into smaller vessels usually made from pottery. Glass containers were available, but they were very fragile and very expensive.

Early glass bottles were produced by the Phoenicians- specimens of Phoenician translucent and transparent glass bottles have been found in Cyprus and Rhodes generally varying in length from three to six inches. These Phoenician examples from the first millennium BC were thought to have been used for perfume. The Romans learned glass-making from the Phoenicians and produced many extant examples of fine glass bottles, mostly relatively small.

Around 1630 an Englishman by the name of Sir Kenelme Digby began making glass bottles in the coal mining country near Gloucestershire. He is credited as the inventor of the modern wine bottle. Almost immediately it became the vessel of choice, since it was inert and would not contaminate the wine, could be easily cleaned and could also used to both store and pour the wine. At first the bottles were round or squatty, and because they were still fragile, often had straw woven around them as protection. They kept that shape until someone discovered that some wines could improve with age if the bottles were laid on their sides to keep the stopper, usually wood or cork, moist. That was the impetus for a taller wine bottle that could be laid down for storage. It was also about that time that the bottle makers figured out how to produce bottles with a consistent neck opening, which allowed for the standardization of stoppers.

Making a tall bottle by hand was difficult, but in the 1700s the art improved and bottles became taller and taller until they finally began to look somewhat like today’s Bordeaux bottle – tall, with a shoulder area that rapidly narrowed to a thinner neck. This is what most all wine bottles looked like for the next several decades. Then around the beginning of the 19th century, the different wine regions, especially in France, started adopting different shaped bottles for their wine.

As the Romans advanced their techniques, they eventually discovered that the easy to blow onion-shape bottles they typically created weren't ideal for storing wine on its side, which helped it age and wet the cork. Thus, they began making longer, flatter bottles that were easier to carry and contained a standard amount  between 0.70 liters and 0.80 liters. This also helped standardize the amount of wine people purchased, though it wasn't until the 1800s that glass blowers exacted this technique. In the late 20th century, both the United States and the European Union set requirements that all bottles hold exactly 0.75 liters.

Bottle sizes:

Applying generally to wines other than Champagne

Split ..................................................... 187.5 ml

Half bottle ............................................. 375 ml     (aka Fillette)

Bottle ................................................... 750 ml

Magnum ............................................... 1.5 liter    (2 bottles)

Marie-Jeanne ........................................ 2.25 liters (3 bottles) (Red Bordeaux)

Double Magnum .................................... 3 liters     (4 bottles)

Jeroboam .............................................. 4.5 liters   (6 bottles)

Imperial ................................................ 6 liters      (8 bottles)

Applying to Champagne bottles

Split ...................................................... 200 ml

Half bottle ............................................. 375 ml

Pint ...................................................... 400 ml

Bottle .................................................... 800 ml

Magnum ................................................ 1.5 liter      (2 bottles)

Jeroboam ............................................... 3 liters       (4 bottles) (& Burgundy)

Rehoboam ............................................. 4.5 liters    (6 bottles) (& Burgundy)

Methuselah ............................................. 6 liters      (8 bottles) (& Burgundy)

Salmanazar ............................................. 9 liters      (12 bottles)

Balthazar ................................................ 12 liters    (16 bottles)

Nebuchadnezzar ...................................... 15 liters    (20 bottles)

Major Grape Varieties

Cabernet Franc

Cabernet Franc is one of the major black grape varieties worldwide. It is principally grown for blending with Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot in the Bordeaux style, but can also be vinified alone - as in the Loire's Chinon.

Cabernet Franc is lighter than Cabernet Sauvignon, making a bright pale red wine and contributing finesse and a peppery perfume to blends with more robust grapes. Depending on growing region and style of wine, additional aromas can include tobacco, raspberry, bell pepper, and cassis, sometimes even violets.

DNA analysis indicates Cabernet Franc is one of two parents of Cabernet Sauvignon, a cross between it and Sauvignon Blanc.

Cabernet Franc is believed to have been established in the Libournais region of southwest France sometime in the 17th century when Cardinal Richelieu transported cuttings of the vine to the Loire Valley.

Zinfandel

Zinfandel is a variety of red grape planted in over 10 percent of California vineyards. DNA fingerprinting revealed that it is genetically equivalent to the Croatian grapes Crljenak Kaštelanski and as well as Tribidrag the Primitivo variety traditionally grown in Puglia-the "heel" of Italy, where it was introduced in the 18th century. The grape found its way to the United States in the mid-19th century, and became known by variations of the name "Zinfandel", a name of uncertain origin.

Zinfandel, meaning the red wine, is known for its rich, dark color scheme, medium to high tannin levels and a higher alcohol content. The Zinfandel feature flavors include: raspberry, blackberry, cherry, plums, raisins, spice and blackpepper all wrapped around various intensities of oak.

White Zinfandel wine is made from the red Zinfandel grape, but the grape skins are quickly removed after they are crushed so there is significantly less contact time with the heavily pigmented red grape skin, resulting in a pink-rose colored wine, instead of a deep red wine.

The European Union recognized Zinfandel as a synonym for Primitivo in January 1999, meaning that Italian Primitivos can be labelled as Zinfandel in the United States and any other country that recognises EU labelling laws. Italian winemakers have taken advantage of these rules and shipped Primitivo wines to the United States labelled as Zinfandels.

Grenache Noir

Grenache or Garnacha (as it is known in Spain) most likely originated in the region of Aragon in northern Spain, according to ampelographical evidence. Plantings probably spread from the original birthplace to Catalonia and other lands under the Crown of Aragon such as Sardinia and Rousillon in southern France.

Grenache, (also known as Grenache Noir, to distinguish it from its white counterpart Grenache Blanc) is the most widely planted grape in the southern Rhône Valley, and the second most widely planted varietal in the world. It is most often blended (with Syrah and Mourvèdre in France and Australia, and with Tempranillo in Rioja), but is probably best known from the wines of Châteauneuf-du-Pape, where it comprises 70% of the appellation’s acreage.

The characteristic notes of Grenache are berry fruit such as raspberries and strawberries. When yields are kept in check, Grenache-based wines can develop complex and intense notes of blackcurrants, black cherries, black olives, coffee, gingerbread, honey, leather, black pepper, tar, spices, and roasted nuts.

Gewürztraminer

The story starts with the ancient Traminer variety, a green-skinned grape that takes its name from the village of Tramin, located in South Tyrol, the German-speaking province in northern Italy.

Gewürztraminer is one of the most pungent wine varietals, easy for even the beginning taster to recognize by its heady, aromatic scent. Gewürztraminer is a variety with a pink to red skin colour, which makes it a "white wine grape" as opposed to the blue to black-skinned varieties commonly referred to as "red wine grapes". The variety has high natural sugar and the wines are white and usually off-dry, with a flamboyant bouquet of lychees.

Dry Gewürztraminers may also have aromas of roses, passion fruit and floral notes. It is not uncommon to notice some spritz-fine bubbles on the inside of the glass. Gewürztraminer's sweetness may offset the spice in Asian cuisine. It goes well with Hirtenkäse, Münster cheese, and fleshy, fatty (oily) wild game. Smoked salmon is a particularly good match.

Pinot blanc

Pinot blanc is a white wine grape. It is a point genetic mutation of Pinot noir.

Pinot blanc's name varies by region. In Austria it may be bottled as Weissburgunder or Klevner (also occasionally named so in Alsace). Hungary calls it Fehér Burgundi. Spain and Italy refer to it as Pinot bianco. In the Czech Republic it is known as Rulandské Bilé, in Slovakia Rulandské Biele, and in Croatia Pinot bijeli or Burgundac bijeli. In Serbia it is called Beli burgundac.

In 2000, there were 1,300 hectares of Pinot blanc in France, with most of the plantations found in Alsace, where it is used for both still white wines and is the most common variety used for sparkling wine, Crémant d'Alsace. The most full-bodied "Pinot blanc" wines from Alsace, with a spicy and smokey character and moderate acidity, are probably dominated by Auxerrois grapes.

Bottles labeled Pinot Blanc offer fruity aromas, often of apple, citrus fruit, and floral characteristics. Bottles that are varietally pure, although more difficult to find, provide stronger floral characteristics, stone fruits and a headier minerality. Regardless of their exact composition, most wines under the label 'Pinot Blanc' are rather high in acidity and are vinified in tank, though more prestigious examples are fermented in large, 100% used oak barrels. Pinot blanc wines are usually made for immediate consumption and seldom meant for cellaring.

Pinot Gris

Pinot gris, or Pinot grigio in Italy, is a variant of the Pinot noir (often blended with Pinot noir to enrich and lighten the wine's flavor), with grape clusters colored bluish gray, pink and brown. Often described as having a floral, smoky, honey-tinged flavor with a minor citrus kick, Pinot gris wine is a dry, crisp white wine often high in acidity and low in tannins. Pinot gris should be consumed within two years of its vintage, and pairs well with seafood, pork and chicken, if served sans acidic embellishments. Pinot gris' nomenclature varies according to region of growth: Pinot grigio in Italy (and Tre Venezie, specifically), Ruländer or Grauburgunder in Germany, Tokay d'Alsace, Pinot beurot or Fromentau in France, and Sivi Pinot in Eastern Europe.

The wines produced from this grape also vary in colour from a deep golden yellow to copper and even a light shade of pink, and it is one of the more popular grapes for orange wine.

A major grape in Alsace, grown on 13.9% of the region's vineyard surface in 2006, the varietal Pinot-gris d'Alsace is markedly different from Pinot gris found elsewhere. The cool climate of Alsace and warm volcanic soils are particularly well suited for Pinot gris, with its dry autumns allowing plenty of time for the grapes to hang on the vines, often resulting in wines of very powerful flavours. Pinot gris is considered an "early to market wine" that can be bottled and out on the market within 4–12 weeks after fermentation.

Semillon

Semillon is a golden-skinned grape used to make dry and sweet white wines, most notably in France and Australia.

The ripe semillon berry is a rich yellow color at maturity, although increasing sun exposure may turn it amber-pink. In warmer climates, there is always danger of sunburn and raisining. If processed as a dry or semidry table wine, the thin skins and tender, juicy pulp require speedy but gentle handling to avoid oxidation and browning.

Semillon grapes make up 80% of the blend in the most expensive and famous dessert wine in the world: Château d'Yquem. Semillon seems the favorite foil of Botrytis Cinerea, the noble rot which concentrates the sugars and flavors and intensifies the aromas for Yquem and the other "late-harvest" dessert wines of France's Monbazillac and Sauternes appellations.

Wines dominated by semillon may lack much youthful aroma, but have fairly full body and tend to be low in acidity, even "oily" or "fat" at times. Semillon also has an affinity for oak, accentuating subtleties such as "toast" and "smoke" that emanate from wines' "spice" rather than its "main ingredient", but nonetheless adding complexity.

Chenin Blanc

Chenin blanc is a white wine grape variety from the Loire valley of France. Its high acidity means it can be used to make everything from sparkling wines to well-balanced dessert wines, although it can produce very bland, neutral wines if the vine's natural vigor is not controlled. It is the most widely planted variety in South Africa, where it is also known as Steen.

It provides a fairly neutral palate for the expression of terroir, vintage variation and the winemaker's treatment. In cool areas the juice is sweet but high in acid with a full-bodied fruity palate.

Chenin blanc is probably the world's most versatile grape, being able to produce quality wines of various sweetness, including dessert wines noted for their aging ability, as well as sparkling made according to the méthode champenoise and fortified wines.

The aromas and flavor notes of Chenin blanc often include the descriptors of minerally, greengage, angelica and honey. Chenin wines produced from noble rot will often have notes of peaches and honey that develop into barley sugar, marzipan, and quince as they age. Dry or semi-sweet Chenin blanc from the Loire will often have notes apple, greengage, and chalky minerals that develop into more honey, acacia, and quince aromas. New World styles of Chenin, such as those of South Africa, are more often made to be consume young and exhibit rich tropical fruit notes such as banana, guava, pear, and pineapple. The alcohol level for dessert styles Chenin rarely goes above 12%, which keeps the wines more in balance. Drier styles of Chenin are more likely to be around 13.5%.

Interesting: "French paradox"

In 1991, the researcher Serge Renaud speculated that the "French paradox", the apparent contradiction between low cardiovascular mortality among the French and their diet rich in fats and sauces could be explained by their taste for red wine. Since then, epidemiological studies have confirmed his intuition, while basic research has explained why. The beneficial effects of a moderate consumption of red wine (about one to three drinks per day) can be partly attributed to the presence of ethanol and polyphenols in the drink. In moderate doses (less than 30 grams per day), ethanol, which is common to all alcoholic beverages, can act as an anti-atheromatic and platelet anti-aggregant.  Also, polyphenols promote cardiovascular health, and have been shown to possess anti-cancer and anti-aging properties.  

Famous Vine Varieties

Cabernet Sauvignon

Cabernet Sauvignon is planted all over the world in a myriad of climates. It reaches its full potential in Bordeaux, especially in the Meodc as well as Pessac Leognan. It is used to produce much of the world’s most expensive wine. It is also used to make a lot of inexpensive wine.

Cabernet Sauvignon produces wines with deep, dark colors that offer complex scents and concentrated flavors ranging from blackberries, creme de cassis, black cherries, boysenberry, blueberry and chocolate when young, to fragrances of tobacco, truffle, cedar wood, earth, lead pencil and leather when mature. When the berries are not ripe, distinct aromas of green peppers or olives can be found. The wines can be rich and concentrated, as well as tannic. Cabernet Sauvignon wines have the ability to age for decades when grown in good soils and allowed ample time to ripen.

The actual Cabernet Sauvignon berries are small. They have dark colored, thick skins and can, under the correct conditions, become intensely, concentrated with flavor. It is the ability to offer concentrated flavors, refined textures and complex aromatics, along with high levels of tannin allowing the wine to age and evolve that make this an ideal grape for producing wine.

The DNA evidence determined that Cabernet Sauvignon was the offspring of Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc and was most likely a chance crossing that occurred in the 17th century.

Merlot

Merlot is a darkly blue-coloured wine grape, that is used as both a blending grape and for varietal wines. The name Merlot is thought to derive from the Old French word for young blackbird, merlot, a diminutive of merle, the blackbird (Turdus merula), probably from the color of the grape.

As a varietal wine, Merlot can make soft, velvety wines with plum flavors. While Merlot wines tend to mature faster than Cabernet Sauvignon, some examples can continue to develop in the bottle for decades.

There are three main styles of Merlot — a soft, fruity, smooth wine with very little tannins, a fruity wine with more tannic structure and, finally, a brawny, highly tannic style made in the profile of Cabernet Sauvignon. Some of the fruit notes commonly associated with Merlot include cassis, black and red cherries, blackberry, blueberry, boysenberry, mulberry, ollalieberry and plum. Vegetable and earthy notes include black and green olives, cola nut, bell pepper, fennel, humus, leather, mushrooms, rhubarb and tobacco. Floral and herbal notes commonly associated with Merlot include green and black tea, eucalyptus, laurel, mint, oregano, pine, rosemary, sage, sarsaparilla and thyme. When Merlot has spent significant time in oak, the wine may show notes of caramel, chocolate, coconut, coffee bean, dill weed, mocha, molasses, smoke, vanilla and walnut. Along with Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec and Petit Verdot, Merlot is one of the primary grapes used in Bordeaux wine, and it is the most widely planted grape in the Bordeaux wine regions.

Pinot noir

Pinot noir's home is France's Burgundy region, particularly in Côte-d'Or.The name may also refer to wines created predominantly from Pinot noir grapes. The name is derived from the French words for "pine" and "black" alluding to the grape variety's tightly clustered dark purple pine-cone shaped bunches of fruit.

The leaves of Pinot noir are generally smaller than those of Cabernet Sauvignon or Syrah and the vine is typically less vigorous than either of these varieties. The grape cluster is small and conico-cylindrical, vaguely shaped like a pine cone.

The tremendously broad range of bouquets, flavors, textures and impressions that Pinot noir can produce sometimes confuses tasters. In the broadest terms, the wine tends to be of light to medium body with an aroma reminiscent of black and / or red cherry, raspberry and to a lesser extent currant and many other fine small red and black berry fruits.

Syrah

The city of Shiraz, in modern day Iran, was considered to be the homeland of this grape. It was thought that it most likely found its way from Persia to Marseilles and hence onto its French homeland in the Rhône valley. It is here that the Syrah grape produces some of its most exquisite examples in Hermitage and Côte Rôtie (where it is often blended with a little (white) Viognier). Both these wines have a capacity to age gracefully for decades.

Syrah retains a presence farther down the Rhone Valley, but in the southern Rhone, the Syrah tends to be more opulent, and less structured. Here it does not stand on its own and is frequently blended with other Rhone varieties like Grenache and Mourvedre, most notably in the appellation of Chateauneuf-du-Pape. Similarly, it retains a key place as a key blending grape in wines from Coteaux de Languedoc. It is found in many other countries, especially in Australia and California, but South Africa (where it is also known as Shiraz), New Zealand, Chile and Argentina are also producing some very interesting examples.

Shiraz wines display firm tannins (although they are typically ripe and smooth, not abrasive like younger reds can be), a medium to full body, and the rich round flavors of black cherry, blackberry, plum, bell pepper, black pepper, clove, licorice, dark chocolate and smoked meat.

Chardonnay

Chardonnay is a green-skinned grape variety used to make white wine. It originated in the Burgundy wine region of eastern France.

Chardonnay grape itself is very neutral, with many of the flavors commonly associated with the grape being derived from such influences as terroir and oak. It is vinified in many different styles, from the lean, crisply mineral wines of Chablis, France to New World wines with oak, and tropical fruit flavors. Chardonnay is an important component of many sparkling wines around the world, including Champagne.

Modern DNA fingerprinting research now suggests that Chardonnay is the result of a cross between the Pinot and Gouais blanc grape varieties.

Chardonnay long had a reputation as one of France's great white wines, but due to the dominance of geographical labeling, the fact that Chardonnay was the grape behind white Burgundy was not widely known by the wine-drinking public. The success of California and new world Chardonnays, partly encouraged by the Californian showing at the Judgment of Paris wine tasting, brought varietal wine labeling to more prominence and the easy to pronounce Chardonnay grape was one of the largest beneficiaries.

The identifying styles of Chardonnay are regionally based. For example, pineapple notes are more commonly associated with Chardonnay from Napa Valley while Chablis will have more notes of green apples. While many examples of Chardonnay can benefit from a few years of bottle aging, especially if they have high acidity, most Chardonnays are meant to be consumed in their youth. A notable exception to this is the most premium examples of Chablis and white Burgundies.

Sauvignon Blanc

Sauvignon Blanc is a green-skinned grape variety which originates from the Bordeaux region of France. The grape most likely gets its name from the French word sauvage "wild" and blanc "white" due to its early origins as an indigenous grape in South West France, a possible descendant of savagnin. Sauvignon blanc is planted in many of the world's wine regions, producing a crisp, dry, and refreshing white varietal wine. The grape is also a component of the famous dessert wines from Sauternes and Barsac. In France, Sauvignon Blanc is grown in the maritime climate of Bordeaux (especially in Entre-Deux-Mers, Graves and Pessac-Leognan as a dry wine, and in Sauternes as a sweet wine) as well as the continental climate of the Loire Valley as Pouilly Fumé, Sancerre, and Sauvignon de Touraine.

Typically a light to medium-bodied, crisp and refreshing white wine with notable acidity, Sauvignon Blanc offers a fairly wide range of flavors. From herbal taste sensations to veggie, and from flavors of grass, hay and mineral tones to a citrus and tropical flavor mix.

Riesling

Riesling is a white grape variety which originated in the Rhine region of Germany. Riesling is an aromatic grape variety displaying flowery, almost perfumed, aromas as well as high acidity. It is used to make dry, semi-sweet, sweet and sparkling white wines. Riesling wines are usually varietally pure and are seldom oaked.

Riesling has a long history, and there are several written references to the variety dating from the 15th century, although with varying orthography.

Riesling wines are often consumed when young, when they make a fruity and aromatic wine which may have aromas of green or other apples, grapefruit, peach, gooseberry, honey, rose blossom or cut green grass, and usually a crisp taste due to the high acidity. With time, Riesling wines tend to acquire a petrol note which is sometimes described with associations to kerosene, lubricant or rubber.

The most expensive wines made from Riesling are late harvest dessert wines, produced by letting the grapes hang on the vines well past normal picking time. Through evaporation caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea ("noble rot") or by freezing, as in the case of ice wine (in German, Eiswein), water is removed and the resulting wine offers richer layers on the palate.

Toasting Oak Barrels

Toasting is one operation in the barrel-making process that has a very direct effect on the taste of the wine. During toasting, furanic aldehydes (responsible for “roasted” aromas) reach their maximum concentration, the vanilla aroma of vanillin is heightened, and various phenols, such as eugenol add a smoky, spicy touch to the complexity of oak aromas in wine.

There are three degrees of toasting: light, medium, and heavy. A light toasting is used by winemakers who seek the most natural oak character (although it is not as neutral as using staves that have been bent with steam); medium varies between a true medium, which suits most red wine demands, and the so-called medium-plus, which is the favorite for fermenting white wines; the third, a heavy toast, dramatically reduces the coconuttylactones and leaves a distinctly charred-smoke character that can be overpowering unless used only as a small component in a blend.

Oak and Wine

An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus-Latin "oak tree"), having 600 extant species. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus. The genus is native to the Northern Hemisphere, and includes deciduous and evergreen species extending from cool temperate to tropical latitudes.

Many woods have been used throughout the history of wine making. Over time, however, the favored wood for making barrels has become oak. There are three main sources of oak: France, Slovenia, and the United States. French and Slovenian oaks are different species than American oak, which provides one choice for the winemaker. Some winemakers chose oak from specific forests, since each has its own unique flavor characteristics and grain structure. Oak is the wood of choice for a variety of reasons. First, the forests in Europe are relatively close to the wine making regions that use barrels. Second, the flavor profile provided by oak is complementary to many wines. Oak is a source of vanillin, the flavor compound in vanilla. Third, oak has a grain structure that allows for controlled diffusion of air through the wood. This slow incorporation of air into aging wine aids in the development of mature characteristics. French and Slovenian oak has a very tight grain, and therefore the slowest diffusion of air. American oak is wide-grained and oxygen can play a much bigger role earlier in the aging process.

Impact of Soil

The soil composition of vineyards is one of the most important viticultural considerations when planting grape vines. The soil supports the root structure of the vine and influences the drainage levels and amount of minerals and nutrients that the vine is exposed to. The ideal soil condition for a vine is a layer of thin topsoil and subsoil that sufficiently retains water but also has good drainage so that the roots do not become overly saturated. The ability of the soil to retain heat or reflect it back up to the vine is also an important consideration that affects the ripening of the grapes.

There are several minerals that are vital to the health of vines that all good vineyard soils have. These include calcium which helps to neutralize the Soil pH levels, iron which is essential for photosynthesis, magnesium which is an important component of chlorophyll, nitrogen which is assimilated in the form of nitrates, phosphates which encourages root development, and potassium which improves the vine metabolisms and increases its health for next year's crop.

There are several tipes of most important  soil:

Clay Soils

Clay soils are made of tiny flat mineral particles that swell when they are wet, so clay holds lots of water and doe not drain well. Clay soils stay cool longer in the spring than looser-textured soils. This causes grapes to ripen more slowly, producing grapes that are more acidic and tannic. Clay soils are highly fertile, transferring more nutrients to the vines. Merlot and Chardonnay grapes do well in clay.

Silt and Sand

Silt has particles larger than clay. Called loess, these soils are found in German Austrian regions that produce white wines. Sand has the largest particles and a loose texture. It ordinarily doesn't hold enough water to produce high-quality grapes. Sand absorbs more sun and is warmer.

Loam

Loam is a combination of silt, sand and clay. It is a rich, fertile soil, high in nutrients and organic matter, and it holds water well. Grapes grown in loam have vigorous vines that can shade fruit, delaying their ripening and lowering their quality. Clay mixed with loam produces even higher vigor and more grapes.

Chalk

Chalk, a type of limestone, is soft enough for roots to grow in and is fairly cool. It holds enough water to nourish vines, yet it drains well. Its calcium content makes it alkaline, producing grapes with a high acid content. Chalk limits the growth of the canopy, helping the grapes to ripen. Pure chalk soils, fairly rare, are found in the Champagne, Cognac and Jerez regions of France.

Granite and Schist

Granite and schist are igneous rocks; schist is a mixture of numerous minerals. Soils formed from granite and schist have loose texture and low fertility but drain well. They are found in Germany's northern Rhone Valley, Portugal's Douro region, and the Beaujolais area of France. Grapes producing Gamay, Syrah and fruity wines with floral aromas grow well in these soils.

Gravel

Soil composed of gravel, largely quartz, is called conglomerate. Gravel causes soil to heat well and drain freely. This is a good soil for Cabernet and other late-ripening grapes but can cause water stress in Merlot and other varieties.

Limestone

The nature of bedrock often determines the quality of a soil. Soils from limestone, ordinarily formed from fossils of ancient marine life, are high in calcium. Limestone soils can form impenetrable layers that block roots. Soils containing chunks of limestone are called calcareous. The term "marl" describes a crumbly mixture of clay and limestone. The Cote d'Or region in eastern France contains a calcareous marl that produces good Chardonnay.