Bottle History

History of Port Wine Bottle 

For the first several thousand years, wine was stored in wooden barrels, leather bags, stoneware or pottery. All large, but varying in size, they were often sealed with a wood or leather plugs, or even a layer of olive oil, but only if the container didn’t have to be moved. For many reasons, these containers often leaked or contaminated the wine and it turned into vinegar or simply went bad. Besides, since the major means of transportation were wagons or ships, the containers were often spilled or broken. And, these containers were too large or bulky to be brought to the table so the wine was decanted into smaller vessels usually made from pottery. Glass containers were available, but they were very fragile and very expensive.

Early glass bottles were produced by the Phoenicians- specimens of Phoenician translucent and transparent glass bottles have been found in Cyprus and Rhodes generally varying in length from three to six inches. These Phoenician examples from the first millennium BC were thought to have been used for perfume. The Romans learned glass-making from the Phoenicians and produced many extant examples of fine glass bottles, mostly relatively small.

Around 1630 an Englishman by the name of Sir Kenelme Digby began making glass bottles in the coal mining country near Gloucestershire. He is credited as the inventor of the modern wine bottle. Almost immediately it became the vessel of choice, since it was inert and would not contaminate the wine, could be easily cleaned and could also used to both store and pour the wine. At first the bottles were round or squatty, and because they were still fragile, often had straw woven around them as protection. They kept that shape until someone discovered that some wines could improve with age if the bottles were laid on their sides to keep the stopper, usually wood or cork, moist. That was the impetus for a taller wine bottle that could be laid down for storage. It was also about that time that the bottle makers figured out how to produce bottles with a consistent neck opening, which allowed for the standardization of stoppers.

Making a tall bottle by hand was difficult, but in the 1700s the art improved and bottles became taller and taller until they finally began to look somewhat like today’s Bordeaux bottle – tall, with a shoulder area that rapidly narrowed to a thinner neck. This is what most all wine bottles looked like for the next several decades. Then around the beginning of the 19th century, the different wine regions, especially in France, started adopting different shaped bottles for their wine.

As the Romans advanced their techniques, they eventually discovered that the easy to blow onion-shape bottles they typically created weren't ideal for storing wine on its side, which helped it age and wet the cork. Thus, they began making longer, flatter bottles that were easier to carry and contained a standard amount  between 0.70 liters and 0.80 liters. This also helped standardize the amount of wine people purchased, though it wasn't until the 1800s that glass blowers exacted this technique. In the late 20th century, both the United States and the European Union set requirements that all bottles hold exactly 0.75 liters.

Bottle sizes:

Applying generally to wines other than Champagne

Split ..................................................... 187.5 ml

Half bottle ............................................. 375 ml     (aka Fillette)

Bottle ................................................... 750 ml

Magnum ............................................... 1.5 liter    (2 bottles)

Marie-Jeanne ........................................ 2.25 liters (3 bottles) (Red Bordeaux)

Double Magnum .................................... 3 liters     (4 bottles)

Jeroboam .............................................. 4.5 liters   (6 bottles)

Imperial ................................................ 6 liters      (8 bottles)

Applying to Champagne bottles

Split ...................................................... 200 ml

Half bottle ............................................. 375 ml

Pint ...................................................... 400 ml

Bottle .................................................... 800 ml

Magnum ................................................ 1.5 liter      (2 bottles)

Jeroboam ............................................... 3 liters       (4 bottles) (& Burgundy)

Rehoboam ............................................. 4.5 liters    (6 bottles) (& Burgundy)

Methuselah ............................................. 6 liters      (8 bottles) (& Burgundy)

Salmanazar ............................................. 9 liters      (12 bottles)

Balthazar ................................................ 12 liters    (16 bottles)

Nebuchadnezzar ...................................... 15 liters    (20 bottles)

Major Grape Varieties

Cabernet Franc

Cabernet Franc is one of the major black grape varieties worldwide. It is principally grown for blending with Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot in the Bordeaux style, but can also be vinified alone - as in the Loire's Chinon.

Cabernet Franc is lighter than Cabernet Sauvignon, making a bright pale red wine and contributing finesse and a peppery perfume to blends with more robust grapes. Depending on growing region and style of wine, additional aromas can include tobacco, raspberry, bell pepper, and cassis, sometimes even violets.

DNA analysis indicates Cabernet Franc is one of two parents of Cabernet Sauvignon, a cross between it and Sauvignon Blanc.

Cabernet Franc is believed to have been established in the Libournais region of southwest France sometime in the 17th century when Cardinal Richelieu transported cuttings of the vine to the Loire Valley.

Zinfandel

Zinfandel is a variety of red grape planted in over 10 percent of California vineyards. DNA fingerprinting revealed that it is genetically equivalent to the Croatian grapes Crljenak Kaštelanski and as well as Tribidrag the Primitivo variety traditionally grown in Puglia-the "heel" of Italy, where it was introduced in the 18th century. The grape found its way to the United States in the mid-19th century, and became known by variations of the name "Zinfandel", a name of uncertain origin.

Zinfandel, meaning the red wine, is known for its rich, dark color scheme, medium to high tannin levels and a higher alcohol content. The Zinfandel feature flavors include: raspberry, blackberry, cherry, plums, raisins, spice and blackpepper all wrapped around various intensities of oak.

White Zinfandel wine is made from the red Zinfandel grape, but the grape skins are quickly removed after they are crushed so there is significantly less contact time with the heavily pigmented red grape skin, resulting in a pink-rose colored wine, instead of a deep red wine.

The European Union recognized Zinfandel as a synonym for Primitivo in January 1999, meaning that Italian Primitivos can be labelled as Zinfandel in the United States and any other country that recognises EU labelling laws. Italian winemakers have taken advantage of these rules and shipped Primitivo wines to the United States labelled as Zinfandels.

Grenache Noir

Grenache or Garnacha (as it is known in Spain) most likely originated in the region of Aragon in northern Spain, according to ampelographical evidence. Plantings probably spread from the original birthplace to Catalonia and other lands under the Crown of Aragon such as Sardinia and Rousillon in southern France.

Grenache, (also known as Grenache Noir, to distinguish it from its white counterpart Grenache Blanc) is the most widely planted grape in the southern Rhône Valley, and the second most widely planted varietal in the world. It is most often blended (with Syrah and Mourvèdre in France and Australia, and with Tempranillo in Rioja), but is probably best known from the wines of Châteauneuf-du-Pape, where it comprises 70% of the appellation’s acreage.

The characteristic notes of Grenache are berry fruit such as raspberries and strawberries. When yields are kept in check, Grenache-based wines can develop complex and intense notes of blackcurrants, black cherries, black olives, coffee, gingerbread, honey, leather, black pepper, tar, spices, and roasted nuts.

Gewürztraminer

The story starts with the ancient Traminer variety, a green-skinned grape that takes its name from the village of Tramin, located in South Tyrol, the German-speaking province in northern Italy.

Gewürztraminer is one of the most pungent wine varietals, easy for even the beginning taster to recognize by its heady, aromatic scent. Gewürztraminer is a variety with a pink to red skin colour, which makes it a "white wine grape" as opposed to the blue to black-skinned varieties commonly referred to as "red wine grapes". The variety has high natural sugar and the wines are white and usually off-dry, with a flamboyant bouquet of lychees.

Dry Gewürztraminers may also have aromas of roses, passion fruit and floral notes. It is not uncommon to notice some spritz-fine bubbles on the inside of the glass. Gewürztraminer's sweetness may offset the spice in Asian cuisine. It goes well with Hirtenkäse, Münster cheese, and fleshy, fatty (oily) wild game. Smoked salmon is a particularly good match.

Pinot blanc

Pinot blanc is a white wine grape. It is a point genetic mutation of Pinot noir.

Pinot blanc's name varies by region. In Austria it may be bottled as Weissburgunder or Klevner (also occasionally named so in Alsace). Hungary calls it Fehér Burgundi. Spain and Italy refer to it as Pinot bianco. In the Czech Republic it is known as Rulandské Bilé, in Slovakia Rulandské Biele, and in Croatia Pinot bijeli or Burgundac bijeli. In Serbia it is called Beli burgundac.

In 2000, there were 1,300 hectares of Pinot blanc in France, with most of the plantations found in Alsace, where it is used for both still white wines and is the most common variety used for sparkling wine, Crémant d'Alsace. The most full-bodied "Pinot blanc" wines from Alsace, with a spicy and smokey character and moderate acidity, are probably dominated by Auxerrois grapes.

Bottles labeled Pinot Blanc offer fruity aromas, often of apple, citrus fruit, and floral characteristics. Bottles that are varietally pure, although more difficult to find, provide stronger floral characteristics, stone fruits and a headier minerality. Regardless of their exact composition, most wines under the label 'Pinot Blanc' are rather high in acidity and are vinified in tank, though more prestigious examples are fermented in large, 100% used oak barrels. Pinot blanc wines are usually made for immediate consumption and seldom meant for cellaring.

Pinot Gris

Pinot gris, or Pinot grigio in Italy, is a variant of the Pinot noir (often blended with Pinot noir to enrich and lighten the wine's flavor), with grape clusters colored bluish gray, pink and brown. Often described as having a floral, smoky, honey-tinged flavor with a minor citrus kick, Pinot gris wine is a dry, crisp white wine often high in acidity and low in tannins. Pinot gris should be consumed within two years of its vintage, and pairs well with seafood, pork and chicken, if served sans acidic embellishments. Pinot gris' nomenclature varies according to region of growth: Pinot grigio in Italy (and Tre Venezie, specifically), Ruländer or Grauburgunder in Germany, Tokay d'Alsace, Pinot beurot or Fromentau in France, and Sivi Pinot in Eastern Europe.

The wines produced from this grape also vary in colour from a deep golden yellow to copper and even a light shade of pink, and it is one of the more popular grapes for orange wine.

A major grape in Alsace, grown on 13.9% of the region's vineyard surface in 2006, the varietal Pinot-gris d'Alsace is markedly different from Pinot gris found elsewhere. The cool climate of Alsace and warm volcanic soils are particularly well suited for Pinot gris, with its dry autumns allowing plenty of time for the grapes to hang on the vines, often resulting in wines of very powerful flavours. Pinot gris is considered an "early to market wine" that can be bottled and out on the market within 4–12 weeks after fermentation.

Semillon

Semillon is a golden-skinned grape used to make dry and sweet white wines, most notably in France and Australia.

The ripe semillon berry is a rich yellow color at maturity, although increasing sun exposure may turn it amber-pink. In warmer climates, there is always danger of sunburn and raisining. If processed as a dry or semidry table wine, the thin skins and tender, juicy pulp require speedy but gentle handling to avoid oxidation and browning.

Semillon grapes make up 80% of the blend in the most expensive and famous dessert wine in the world: Château d'Yquem. Semillon seems the favorite foil of Botrytis Cinerea, the noble rot which concentrates the sugars and flavors and intensifies the aromas for Yquem and the other "late-harvest" dessert wines of France's Monbazillac and Sauternes appellations.

Wines dominated by semillon may lack much youthful aroma, but have fairly full body and tend to be low in acidity, even "oily" or "fat" at times. Semillon also has an affinity for oak, accentuating subtleties such as "toast" and "smoke" that emanate from wines' "spice" rather than its "main ingredient", but nonetheless adding complexity.

Chenin Blanc

Chenin blanc is a white wine grape variety from the Loire valley of France. Its high acidity means it can be used to make everything from sparkling wines to well-balanced dessert wines, although it can produce very bland, neutral wines if the vine's natural vigor is not controlled. It is the most widely planted variety in South Africa, where it is also known as Steen.

It provides a fairly neutral palate for the expression of terroir, vintage variation and the winemaker's treatment. In cool areas the juice is sweet but high in acid with a full-bodied fruity palate.

Chenin blanc is probably the world's most versatile grape, being able to produce quality wines of various sweetness, including dessert wines noted for their aging ability, as well as sparkling made according to the méthode champenoise and fortified wines.

The aromas and flavor notes of Chenin blanc often include the descriptors of minerally, greengage, angelica and honey. Chenin wines produced from noble rot will often have notes of peaches and honey that develop into barley sugar, marzipan, and quince as they age. Dry or semi-sweet Chenin blanc from the Loire will often have notes apple, greengage, and chalky minerals that develop into more honey, acacia, and quince aromas. New World styles of Chenin, such as those of South Africa, are more often made to be consume young and exhibit rich tropical fruit notes such as banana, guava, pear, and pineapple. The alcohol level for dessert styles Chenin rarely goes above 12%, which keeps the wines more in balance. Drier styles of Chenin are more likely to be around 13.5%.

Interesting: "French paradox"

In 1991, the researcher Serge Renaud speculated that the "French paradox", the apparent contradiction between low cardiovascular mortality among the French and their diet rich in fats and sauces could be explained by their taste for red wine. Since then, epidemiological studies have confirmed his intuition, while basic research has explained why. The beneficial effects of a moderate consumption of red wine (about one to three drinks per day) can be partly attributed to the presence of ethanol and polyphenols in the drink. In moderate doses (less than 30 grams per day), ethanol, which is common to all alcoholic beverages, can act as an anti-atheromatic and platelet anti-aggregant.  Also, polyphenols promote cardiovascular health, and have been shown to possess anti-cancer and anti-aging properties.  

Famous Vine Varieties

Cabernet Sauvignon

Cabernet Sauvignon is planted all over the world in a myriad of climates. It reaches its full potential in Bordeaux, especially in the Meodc as well as Pessac Leognan. It is used to produce much of the world’s most expensive wine. It is also used to make a lot of inexpensive wine.

Cabernet Sauvignon produces wines with deep, dark colors that offer complex scents and concentrated flavors ranging from blackberries, creme de cassis, black cherries, boysenberry, blueberry and chocolate when young, to fragrances of tobacco, truffle, cedar wood, earth, lead pencil and leather when mature. When the berries are not ripe, distinct aromas of green peppers or olives can be found. The wines can be rich and concentrated, as well as tannic. Cabernet Sauvignon wines have the ability to age for decades when grown in good soils and allowed ample time to ripen.

The actual Cabernet Sauvignon berries are small. They have dark colored, thick skins and can, under the correct conditions, become intensely, concentrated with flavor. It is the ability to offer concentrated flavors, refined textures and complex aromatics, along with high levels of tannin allowing the wine to age and evolve that make this an ideal grape for producing wine.

The DNA evidence determined that Cabernet Sauvignon was the offspring of Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc and was most likely a chance crossing that occurred in the 17th century.

Merlot

Merlot is a darkly blue-coloured wine grape, that is used as both a blending grape and for varietal wines. The name Merlot is thought to derive from the Old French word for young blackbird, merlot, a diminutive of merle, the blackbird (Turdus merula), probably from the color of the grape.

As a varietal wine, Merlot can make soft, velvety wines with plum flavors. While Merlot wines tend to mature faster than Cabernet Sauvignon, some examples can continue to develop in the bottle for decades.

There are three main styles of Merlot — a soft, fruity, smooth wine with very little tannins, a fruity wine with more tannic structure and, finally, a brawny, highly tannic style made in the profile of Cabernet Sauvignon. Some of the fruit notes commonly associated with Merlot include cassis, black and red cherries, blackberry, blueberry, boysenberry, mulberry, ollalieberry and plum. Vegetable and earthy notes include black and green olives, cola nut, bell pepper, fennel, humus, leather, mushrooms, rhubarb and tobacco. Floral and herbal notes commonly associated with Merlot include green and black tea, eucalyptus, laurel, mint, oregano, pine, rosemary, sage, sarsaparilla and thyme. When Merlot has spent significant time in oak, the wine may show notes of caramel, chocolate, coconut, coffee bean, dill weed, mocha, molasses, smoke, vanilla and walnut. Along with Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec and Petit Verdot, Merlot is one of the primary grapes used in Bordeaux wine, and it is the most widely planted grape in the Bordeaux wine regions.

Pinot noir

Pinot noir's home is France's Burgundy region, particularly in Côte-d'Or.The name may also refer to wines created predominantly from Pinot noir grapes. The name is derived from the French words for "pine" and "black" alluding to the grape variety's tightly clustered dark purple pine-cone shaped bunches of fruit.

The leaves of Pinot noir are generally smaller than those of Cabernet Sauvignon or Syrah and the vine is typically less vigorous than either of these varieties. The grape cluster is small and conico-cylindrical, vaguely shaped like a pine cone.

The tremendously broad range of bouquets, flavors, textures and impressions that Pinot noir can produce sometimes confuses tasters. In the broadest terms, the wine tends to be of light to medium body with an aroma reminiscent of black and / or red cherry, raspberry and to a lesser extent currant and many other fine small red and black berry fruits.

Syrah

The city of Shiraz, in modern day Iran, was considered to be the homeland of this grape. It was thought that it most likely found its way from Persia to Marseilles and hence onto its French homeland in the Rhône valley. It is here that the Syrah grape produces some of its most exquisite examples in Hermitage and Côte Rôtie (where it is often blended with a little (white) Viognier). Both these wines have a capacity to age gracefully for decades.

Syrah retains a presence farther down the Rhone Valley, but in the southern Rhone, the Syrah tends to be more opulent, and less structured. Here it does not stand on its own and is frequently blended with other Rhone varieties like Grenache and Mourvedre, most notably in the appellation of Chateauneuf-du-Pape. Similarly, it retains a key place as a key blending grape in wines from Coteaux de Languedoc. It is found in many other countries, especially in Australia and California, but South Africa (where it is also known as Shiraz), New Zealand, Chile and Argentina are also producing some very interesting examples.

Shiraz wines display firm tannins (although they are typically ripe and smooth, not abrasive like younger reds can be), a medium to full body, and the rich round flavors of black cherry, blackberry, plum, bell pepper, black pepper, clove, licorice, dark chocolate and smoked meat.

Chardonnay

Chardonnay is a green-skinned grape variety used to make white wine. It originated in the Burgundy wine region of eastern France.

Chardonnay grape itself is very neutral, with many of the flavors commonly associated with the grape being derived from such influences as terroir and oak. It is vinified in many different styles, from the lean, crisply mineral wines of Chablis, France to New World wines with oak, and tropical fruit flavors. Chardonnay is an important component of many sparkling wines around the world, including Champagne.

Modern DNA fingerprinting research now suggests that Chardonnay is the result of a cross between the Pinot and Gouais blanc grape varieties.

Chardonnay long had a reputation as one of France's great white wines, but due to the dominance of geographical labeling, the fact that Chardonnay was the grape behind white Burgundy was not widely known by the wine-drinking public. The success of California and new world Chardonnays, partly encouraged by the Californian showing at the Judgment of Paris wine tasting, brought varietal wine labeling to more prominence and the easy to pronounce Chardonnay grape was one of the largest beneficiaries.

The identifying styles of Chardonnay are regionally based. For example, pineapple notes are more commonly associated with Chardonnay from Napa Valley while Chablis will have more notes of green apples. While many examples of Chardonnay can benefit from a few years of bottle aging, especially if they have high acidity, most Chardonnays are meant to be consumed in their youth. A notable exception to this is the most premium examples of Chablis and white Burgundies.

Sauvignon Blanc

Sauvignon Blanc is a green-skinned grape variety which originates from the Bordeaux region of France. The grape most likely gets its name from the French word sauvage "wild" and blanc "white" due to its early origins as an indigenous grape in South West France, a possible descendant of savagnin. Sauvignon blanc is planted in many of the world's wine regions, producing a crisp, dry, and refreshing white varietal wine. The grape is also a component of the famous dessert wines from Sauternes and Barsac. In France, Sauvignon Blanc is grown in the maritime climate of Bordeaux (especially in Entre-Deux-Mers, Graves and Pessac-Leognan as a dry wine, and in Sauternes as a sweet wine) as well as the continental climate of the Loire Valley as Pouilly Fumé, Sancerre, and Sauvignon de Touraine.

Typically a light to medium-bodied, crisp and refreshing white wine with notable acidity, Sauvignon Blanc offers a fairly wide range of flavors. From herbal taste sensations to veggie, and from flavors of grass, hay and mineral tones to a citrus and tropical flavor mix.

Riesling

Riesling is a white grape variety which originated in the Rhine region of Germany. Riesling is an aromatic grape variety displaying flowery, almost perfumed, aromas as well as high acidity. It is used to make dry, semi-sweet, sweet and sparkling white wines. Riesling wines are usually varietally pure and are seldom oaked.

Riesling has a long history, and there are several written references to the variety dating from the 15th century, although with varying orthography.

Riesling wines are often consumed when young, when they make a fruity and aromatic wine which may have aromas of green or other apples, grapefruit, peach, gooseberry, honey, rose blossom or cut green grass, and usually a crisp taste due to the high acidity. With time, Riesling wines tend to acquire a petrol note which is sometimes described with associations to kerosene, lubricant or rubber.

The most expensive wines made from Riesling are late harvest dessert wines, produced by letting the grapes hang on the vines well past normal picking time. Through evaporation caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea ("noble rot") or by freezing, as in the case of ice wine (in German, Eiswein), water is removed and the resulting wine offers richer layers on the palate.

Toasting Oak Barrels

Toasting is one operation in the barrel-making process that has a very direct effect on the taste of the wine. During toasting, furanic aldehydes (responsible for “roasted” aromas) reach their maximum concentration, the vanilla aroma of vanillin is heightened, and various phenols, such as eugenol add a smoky, spicy touch to the complexity of oak aromas in wine.

There are three degrees of toasting: light, medium, and heavy. A light toasting is used by winemakers who seek the most natural oak character (although it is not as neutral as using staves that have been bent with steam); medium varies between a true medium, which suits most red wine demands, and the so-called medium-plus, which is the favorite for fermenting white wines; the third, a heavy toast, dramatically reduces the coconuttylactones and leaves a distinctly charred-smoke character that can be overpowering unless used only as a small component in a blend.

Oak and Wine

An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus-Latin "oak tree"), having 600 extant species. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus. The genus is native to the Northern Hemisphere, and includes deciduous and evergreen species extending from cool temperate to tropical latitudes.

Many woods have been used throughout the history of wine making. Over time, however, the favored wood for making barrels has become oak. There are three main sources of oak: France, Slovenia, and the United States. French and Slovenian oaks are different species than American oak, which provides one choice for the winemaker. Some winemakers chose oak from specific forests, since each has its own unique flavor characteristics and grain structure. Oak is the wood of choice for a variety of reasons. First, the forests in Europe are relatively close to the wine making regions that use barrels. Second, the flavor profile provided by oak is complementary to many wines. Oak is a source of vanillin, the flavor compound in vanilla. Third, oak has a grain structure that allows for controlled diffusion of air through the wood. This slow incorporation of air into aging wine aids in the development of mature characteristics. French and Slovenian oak has a very tight grain, and therefore the slowest diffusion of air. American oak is wide-grained and oxygen can play a much bigger role earlier in the aging process.

Impact of Soil

The soil composition of vineyards is one of the most important viticultural considerations when planting grape vines. The soil supports the root structure of the vine and influences the drainage levels and amount of minerals and nutrients that the vine is exposed to. The ideal soil condition for a vine is a layer of thin topsoil and subsoil that sufficiently retains water but also has good drainage so that the roots do not become overly saturated. The ability of the soil to retain heat or reflect it back up to the vine is also an important consideration that affects the ripening of the grapes.

There are several minerals that are vital to the health of vines that all good vineyard soils have. These include calcium which helps to neutralize the Soil pH levels, iron which is essential for photosynthesis, magnesium which is an important component of chlorophyll, nitrogen which is assimilated in the form of nitrates, phosphates which encourages root development, and potassium which improves the vine metabolisms and increases its health for next year's crop.

There are several tipes of most important  soil:

Clay Soils

Clay soils are made of tiny flat mineral particles that swell when they are wet, so clay holds lots of water and doe not drain well. Clay soils stay cool longer in the spring than looser-textured soils. This causes grapes to ripen more slowly, producing grapes that are more acidic and tannic. Clay soils are highly fertile, transferring more nutrients to the vines. Merlot and Chardonnay grapes do well in clay.

Silt and Sand

Silt has particles larger than clay. Called loess, these soils are found in German Austrian regions that produce white wines. Sand has the largest particles and a loose texture. It ordinarily doesn't hold enough water to produce high-quality grapes. Sand absorbs more sun and is warmer.

Loam

Loam is a combination of silt, sand and clay. It is a rich, fertile soil, high in nutrients and organic matter, and it holds water well. Grapes grown in loam have vigorous vines that can shade fruit, delaying their ripening and lowering their quality. Clay mixed with loam produces even higher vigor and more grapes.

Chalk

Chalk, a type of limestone, is soft enough for roots to grow in and is fairly cool. It holds enough water to nourish vines, yet it drains well. Its calcium content makes it alkaline, producing grapes with a high acid content. Chalk limits the growth of the canopy, helping the grapes to ripen. Pure chalk soils, fairly rare, are found in the Champagne, Cognac and Jerez regions of France.

Granite and Schist

Granite and schist are igneous rocks; schist is a mixture of numerous minerals. Soils formed from granite and schist have loose texture and low fertility but drain well. They are found in Germany's northern Rhone Valley, Portugal's Douro region, and the Beaujolais area of France. Grapes producing Gamay, Syrah and fruity wines with floral aromas grow well in these soils.

Gravel

Soil composed of gravel, largely quartz, is called conglomerate. Gravel causes soil to heat well and drain freely. This is a good soil for Cabernet and other late-ripening grapes but can cause water stress in Merlot and other varieties.

Limestone

The nature of bedrock often determines the quality of a soil. Soils from limestone, ordinarily formed from fossils of ancient marine life, are high in calcium. Limestone soils can form impenetrable layers that block roots. Soils containing chunks of limestone are called calcareous. The term "marl" describes a crumbly mixture of clay and limestone. The Cote d'Or region in eastern France contains a calcareous marl that produces good Chardonnay.

Annual Life Cycle Of The Vine

Weeping

WEEPING

February (Northern Hemisphere)

August (Southern Hemisphere)

Weeping is a sign the vine is waking up. As the climate warms, the vine's roots start collecting water. Sap then rises through the vine and oozes out of the cane ends. Vines tend to loose between half and 5 1/2 litres of sap through this process Weeping is the beginning of the viticultural process and is the sign to prune for Spring.

BUD-BREAK

March-April (Northern Hemisphere)

September-October (Southern Hemisphere)

In the Spring time (typically 20-30 days after the vine starts to weep), the buds open. Different varieties bud-break at different times. The type of soil also affects the process. Clay for instance slows things up, whilst sand (which is a better conduit of heat) speeds things up. The vines are particularly susceptible to frost at bud-break. Pruning carries on for about a month at this stage, with the vines secured to their training frames.

BUNCHES BEGIN TO APPEAR/FOLIAGE

April-May (Northern Hemisphere)

October-November (Southern Hemisphere)

Initially, leaves begin appearing on the vine. After 4 or 5 leaves shoot out, small embryonic bunches take shape. This is the first indication of the size of the harvest. At this stage spraying typically occurs to ward off creepy crawlies - this continues until the harvest. These sprays are often combined with fertilizer to feed the vine.

FLOWERING

May-June (Northern Hemisphere)

November-December (Southern Hemisphere)

The embryo bunches break into flower. The flowers' pollination and fertilisation lasts about a week or two. This is another very sensitive time for the vine - the weather must be dry and frost free. Most importantly the temperature must be sufficient to enable the vine to flower (at least 15°c).

FRUIT SET

June-July (Northern hemisphere)

December-January (Southern hemisphere)

After flowering, the berries rapidly swell and form into grapes. The number of grapes per bunch varies from variety to variety. Summer pruning occurs at this stage to encourage the vine to focus its energy on making fruit, with fruit that is not properly developed pruned. Some vignerons at this stage weed, others do not, and allow the weeds to grow before they are cut down and ploughed back in the soil to provide green manure.

GRAPE RIPENING

August (Northern Hemisphere)

January (Southern Hemisphere)

The grape's skin now turns a different colour (the French call this veraison). At this stage the sugar content increases dramatically, and the harsh malic acid (the acid of apples) diminishes while the softer tartaric acid becomes more prevalent. Tartaric acid remains the dominant acid in the grape after this.

The vines leaves and foliage are thinned at this stage to increase the grape's access to air, which in turn discourages rot. Grapes tasted at this stage are still sour and not yet mature.

HARVESTING

August-October (Northern hemisphere)

February-March (Southern hemisphere)

Tradition dictates that harvesting happens 100 days after flowering. In practise the harvest ordinarily starts in mid to late September in the Northern Hemisphere (mid to late February in the Southern Hemisphere). As with all harvests, the exact time of picking is determined by the weather to a certain extent. Grape variety, sugar levels and acidity levels are also of paramount importance in determining harvest time. Testing for sugar and acidity levels is frequent in the final days before harvesting. Harvesting can last for days, weeks, or even a month or more, dependant on a variety of factors (e.g. whether grapes are picked by hand, or whether mechanisation is used). White grapes are harvested before black, partially so they retain a higher acidity balance.

BOTRYTIS

November-December (Northern Hemisphere)

April-May (Southern Hemisphere)

In November the vine's sap retreats to protect the vine's root system. Remaining grapes start to dehydrate. Grapes begin to raisin on the vine. In certain vineyards, botrytis cinerea, or noble rot, is actively encouraged.

EISWEIN

December-January (Northern Hemisphere)

May-June (Southern Hemisphere)

In Germany and Austria, when botrytis has failed to occur on some grapes, vignerons may look for frost or snow to freeze the grapes, so that they can make Eiswein. In Eiswein making, only the water freezes. This frozen water can be separated once the grapes are pressed to leave a concentrated unfrozen pulp which is the basis for this rarest of wines.

Viticulture

Viticulture is the science, production and study of grapes which deals with the series of events that occur in the vineyard. When the grapes are used for winemaking, it is also known as viniculture. It is a branch of the science of horticulture.

While the native territory of Vitis vinifera, the common grape vine, is a band of area from Western Europe to the Persian shores of the Caspian Sea, the vine has demonstrated high levels of adaptability and will sometimes mutate to accommodate a new environment after its introduction. Because of this, viticulture can be found on every continent except Antarctica.

Duties of the viticulturist include: monitoring and controlling pests and diseases, fertilizing, irrigation, canopy management, monitoring fruit development and characteristics, deciding when to harvest and vine pruning during the winter months. Viticulturists are often intimately involved with winemakers, because vineyard management and the resulting grape characteristics provide the basis from which winemaking can begin.

Fertilizer or fertiliser is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.

Irrigation in viticulture is the process of applying extra water in the cultivation of grapevines.

Pruning is a horticultural and silvicultural practice involving the selective removal of parts of a plant, such as branches, buds, or roots. Reasons to prune plants include deadwood removal, shaping, improving or maintaining health, reducing risk from falling branches, preparing nursery specimens for transplanting, and both harvesting and increasing the yield or quality of flowers and fruits. The practice entails targeted removal of diseased, damaged, dead, non-productive, structurally unsound, or otherwise unwanted tissue from crop and landscape plants.

Terroir

Terroir refers to the combination of natural factors associated with any particular vineyard. These factors include such things as soil, underlying rock, altitude, slope of hill or terrain, orientation toward the sun, and microclimate (typical rain, winds, humidity, temperature variations, etc.) No two vineyards have exactly the same terroir, although any difference in the resulting wine may be virtually undetectable.

Vineyards are often on hillsides and on soil of marginal value to other plants. A common saying is that "the worse the soil, the better the wine." Planting on hillsides, especially those facing north (in the southern hemisphere) or south (in the northern hemisphere), is most often in an attempt to maximize the amount of sunlight that falls on the vineyard. For this reason some of the best wines come from vineyards planted on quite steep hills, conditions which would make most other agricultural products uneconomic. The stereotypical vineyard site for wine grapes (in the Northern hemisphere) is a hillside in a dry climate with a southern exposure, good drainage to reduce unnecessary water uptake, and balanced pruning to force the vine to put more of its energy into the fruit, rather than foliage.

The terroir philosophy is predominately French, the flavour and character of the place defining the individuality and the special attributes of wines and combined with hundreds of years of the finest wine making traditions, terroir gives wines their distinctive taste and signature.

Wine Growing Regions

The grape vine grows best where the climate is temperate. Two broad belts, one north and one south of the equator, have such a climate. The belt located north of the equator extends from 50 degrees N. to 30 degrees N. The one located south of the equator is narrower, extending from 30 degrees S. to 40 degrees S. The best-known wine countries located above (or north) of the equator are France, Germany, Italy, the U.S., and Algeria. The lesser-known but also good producers are Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Croatia, Slovenia, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece as well as Russia, Czech Republic, Slovakia, China and Japan. Below the equator are the southern wine making areas that include Africa (Algeria, Morocco, South Africa); Australia, Chile, Argentina and Brazil.

More than three fourths of the world’s wine is made in Europe.

Grape

A grape is a fruiting berry of the deciduous woody vines of the botanical genus Vitis. Grapes can be eaten raw or they can be used for making wine, jam, juice, jelly, grape seed extract, raisins, vinegar, and grape seed oil. Grapes are a non-climacteric type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters.

Grapes are a type of fruit that grow in clusters of 15 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green, orange and pink. "White" grapes are actually green in color, and are evolutionarily derived from the purple grape. Mutations in two regulatory genes of white grapes turn off production of anthocyanins which are responsible for the color of purple grapes.  Anthocyanins and other pigment chemicals of the larger family of polyphenols in purple grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines. Grapes are typically an ellipsoid shape resembling a prolate spheroid.

Most grapes come from cultivars of Vitis vinifera, the European grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Minor amounts of fruit and wine come from American and Asian species such as:

-Vitis labrusca, the North American table and grape juice grapevines (including the concord cultivar), sometimes used for wine, are native to the Eastern United States and Canada.

-Vitis riparia, a wild vine of North America, is sometimes used for winemaking and for jam. It is native to the entire Eastern U.S. and north to Quebec.

-Vitis rotundifolia, the muscadines, used for jams and wine, are native to the Southeastern United States from Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico.Vitis amurensis is the most important Asian species.

Commercially cultivated grapes can usually be classified as either table or wine grapes, based on their intended method of consumption: eaten raw (table grapes) or used to make wine (wine grapes). While almost all of them belong to the same species, Vitis vinifera, table and wine grapes have significant differences, brought about through selective breeding. Table grape cultivars tend to have large, seedless fruit with relatively thin skin. Wine grapes are smaller, usually seeded, and have relatively thick skins (a desirable characteristic in winemaking, since much of the aroma in wine comes from the skin). Wine grapes also tend to be very sweet: they are harvested at the time when their juice is approximately 24% sugar by weight. By comparison, commercially produced "100% grape juice", made from table grapes is usually around 15% sugar by weight.

These are typical phytochemicals found in grape: phenolic acids, flavonols, flavon-3-ols, myricetin, peonidin, flavonoids, resveratrol, quercetin, tannins, anthocyanins, kaempferol, cyanidin, ellagic acid, proanthocyanidins.

Since the 1980s, biochemical and medical studies have demonstrated significant antioxidant properties of grape seed oligomeric proanthocyanidins. Together with tannins, polyphenols and polyunsaturated fatty acids, these seed constituents display inhibitory activities against several experimental disease models, including cancer, heart failure and other disorders of oxidative stress.

Grape seed oil from crushed seeds is used in cosmeceuticals and skincare products for many perceived health benefits. Grape seed oil has some amount of tocopherols (vitamin E), but is notable for its high contents of phytosterols, polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, oleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid.

Wine: The Oldest Medicine

Is it possible that wine may indeed be the world's oldest medicine? Until the 18th century, wine played an integral role in medical practice. Not only was it safer to drink than most available water but its alcohol, antioxidant and acid content inhibited the growth of many spoilage and pathogenic organisms. The paradigm shifted in the second half of the 20th century, when alcohol consumption, including wine drinking, had become the target of health campaigners who, with some success, demanded warning labels on wine bottles. Substantial medical evidence, summarized in this article, was accumulated during the 1990s and indicated that the moderate consumption of especially red wine can reduce the incidence of coronary heart disease. Today it is perceived, and generally accepted, that moderate wine drinking can be socially beneficial, and can also be effective in the management of stress and reducing coronary heart disease. The prudent wine drinkers, however, continue to monitor their drinking habits so as to ensure that the benefits exceed the risks.

Wine and Religion

Judaism

Wine is an important part of Judaism. Passages in the Hebrew Bible demonstrate that wine was associated with the divine. In addition to divinity, the importance of wine can be seen with Bible passages threatening of barren vines if the word of God is disobeyed. As wine is an important feature of Judaism, wine can be found in various rituals still practiced today. In a Kiddush blessing, wine is blessed in order to sanctify Jewish holidays. Also during the Jewish festival of Passover, Rabbinic obligations exist where men and women consume four cups of wine. In other areas of Judaism, wine is used in a sacrificial capacity within religious services. In addition to the use of wine in Judaism, specific Jewish dietary laws require that wine be produced a certain way. These wines are known as kosher wines and must be produced by Sabbath observant Jews. In the production of kosher wines, all components must conform to religious rules and regulations.

Christianity

The relationship between wine and Christianity is one not seen with other religions. In Christianity, wine serves as one of the most important symbols within the church. Stories in the New Testament of the Bible tell of Jesus Christ recognized as the Son of God by the Christian faith turning water into wine. At the Last Supper, Jesus shared bread and wine with his disciples. During the Last Supper, Jesus explained the forgiveness of sins and requested that the rituals of the supper be continued in his memory. Due to these events, bread and wine are representative of the body and blood of Christ. In the practice of Christian ritual, wine and bread are consecrated and become the body and blood of Christ. This practice, which is completed with a parishioner consuming the body and blood of Christ, is known as Holy Communion. As Holy Communion is a major component of Christianity, most Christian denominations still to this day utilize sacramental wine in Church services. A testament to the importance of wine and Christianity can be seen with the United States act of Prohibition in the 1920s. During Prohibition, wineries were allowed to produce sacramental wine for the church.

Islam

As an Abrahamic religion, Islam shares many of the same beliefs as Judaism and Christianity. It is therefore curious that alcohol consumption is prohibited in the Islamic religion. Prior to the birth of Muhammad the Meccian prophet who united Arabia, wine was consumed within various cities of the Middle East. As Islam spread throughout the Middle East, the teachings found within the Qur'an, the religious text of Islam were observed. The Qur'an has several passages and revelations concerning alcohol and wine. In one of the early revelations of the Qur'an, wine is praised as a gift to mankind. Subsequent revelations speak of the abuse of the gift of alcohol. The last revelation concerning wine in the Qur'an specifies that due to disruptions of drunken behavior, wine among other things must be avoided. Due to the revelations of the Qur'an, the consumption of alcohol is generally forbidden under Islamic law. While the consumption of alcohol is prohibited, not all Islamic individuals (Muslims) or Islamic societies practice prohibition. Middle Eastern countries at different times have had different legal stipulations concerning alcohol. For example, Egypt and Morocco both produce wines for consumption by non-Muslim individuals. Also, Muslims who find themselves in non-Islamic societies will often consume wine and other forms of alcohol.

Daoism

Other religions exist in different parts of the world. In Asia a religion known as Daoism is practiced. As a complex religion, Daoism's relationship with wine is also complex. At different points in the history of Daoism, the use of alcohol has been cherished and frowned upon. The effect of alcohol was sometimes appreciated but was also sometimes viewed as a hindrance concerning the goal of spiritual perfection. Some Daoist scriptures even prohibit alcohol consumption. Wine's use in Daoist rituals stems from a long history of involvement. Today, wine is a standard offering at funeral services as well as the Jiao ritual. The Jiao ritual is a multi-day event where deities are presented wine as well as other offerings.

Confucianism

The non-theistic Asian ideology of Confucianism utilizes alcohol in its traditional rituals. Alcohol use is historically significant within various forms of Confucianism, and continues in modern society. Wines are utilized in funerals and marriages. In funerals, wine is viewed as an offering to the earth as well as the deceased. Alcohol is also offered on ancestral altars and ancestral halls. At weddings, wine can be found in the wedding banquet. Wine stored at the time of the bride's birth is presented at her wedding. In Chinese tradition, wine is shared by the bride and groom in a special nuptial cup.

Buddhism

The religion of Buddhism is practiced in China, Japan, Southeast Asia as well as South Asia. The teachings of Buddhism expressly prohibit the consumption of alcohol, as it is contradictory to the goal of enlightenment. Some Buddhist disciplines have allowed the drinking of wine, namely the Tantric traditions found in Tibet. In Tantric Buddhism, wine is viewed as a tool in enlightenment. As with any religion, different regional customs and individual interpretation is observed. For example, in Meiji Japan Buddhist clergy were allowed alcohol consumption. Also in Sri Lanka, the consumption of wine and alcohol is tied with a higher social status and is therefore accepted.

Hinduism

India and its various religions share a long history with wine. Hinduism had originally viewed the consumption of wine as a mortal sin. This eventually changed as different standings within the caste system were allowed different policies concerning alcohol consumption. Eventually, only the highest Brahmin caste was prohibited from drinking wine. It should be noted that Indian wines were not made from grapes but from palm sap. Indian wines, also known as Toddy Palm Wine, are locally produced and consumed.